Coyotes
Coyote Facts
Identification
In body form and size, the coyote
(Canis latrans) resembles a small collie
dog, with erect pointed ears, slender
muzzle, and a bushy tail (Fig. 1).
Coyotes are redominantly brownish
gray in color with a light gray to
cream-colored belly. Color varies
greatly, however, from nearly black to
red or nearly white in some individuals
and local populations. Most have
dark or black guard hairs over their
back and tail. In western states, typical
adult males weigh from 25 to 45
pounds (11 to 16 kg) and females from
22 to 35 pounds (10 to 14 kg). In the
East, many coyotes are larger than
their western counterparts, with males
averaging about 45 pounds (14 kg) and females about 30 pounds (13 kg).
Coyote-dog and coyote-wolf hybrids
exist in some areas and may vary
greatly from typical coyotes in size,
color, and appearance. Also, coyotes in
the New England states may differ in
color from typical western coyotes.
Many are black, and some are reddish.
These colorations may partially be due
to past hybridization with dogs and
wolves. True wolves are also present
in some areas of coyote range, particularly
in Canada, Alaska, Montana,
northern Minnesota, Wisconsin, and
Michigan. Relatively few wolves
remain in the southern United States
and Mexico.
Range
Historically, coyotes were most common
on the Great Plains of North
America. They have since extended
their range from Central America to
the Arctic, including all of the United
States (except Hawaii), Canada, and
Mexico. Weaker lambs are also present. Usually,
the stronger lamb is on the
periphery and is more active, making
it more prone to attack than a weaker
lamb that is at the center of the flock
and relatively immobile.
Coyote predation on livestock is generally
more severe during early spring
and summer than in winter for two
reasons. First, sheep and cows are usually
under more intensive management
during winter, either in feedlots
or in pastures that are close to human
activity, thus reducing the opportunity
for coyotes to take livestock. Second,
predators bear young in the spring and
raise them through the summer, a process
that demands increased nutritional
input, for both the whelping and
nursing mother and the growing
young. This increased demand corresponds
to the time when young sheep
or beef calves are on pastures or rangeland
and are most vulnerable to attack.
Coyote predation also may increase
during fall when young coyotes disperse
from their home ranges and
establish new territories.
General Biology,
Reproduction, and
Behavior
Coyotes are most active at night and
during early morning hours (especially
where human activity occurs), and
during hot summer weather. Where
there is minimal human interference
and during cool weather, they may be
active throughout the day.
Coyotes bed in sheltered areas but do
not generally use dens except when
raising young. They may seek shelter
underground during severe weather
or when closely pursued. Their physical
abilities include good yesight and
Habitat
Many references indicate that coyotes
were originally found in relatively
open habitats, particularly the grasslands
and sparsely wooded areas of
the western United States. Whether or
not this was true, coyotes have
adapted to and now exist in virtually every type of habitat, arctic to tropic,
in North America. Coyotes live in
deserts, swamps, tundra, grasslands,
brush, dense forests, from below sea
level to high mountain ranges, and at
all intermediate altitudes. High densities
of coyotes also appear in the suburbs
of Los Angeles, Pasadena,
Phoenix, and other western cities.
Food Habits
Coyotes often include many items in
their diet. Rabbits top the list of their
dietary components. Carrion, rodents,
ungulates (usually lawns), insects
(such as grasshoppers), as well as livestock
and poultry, are also consumed.
Coyotes readily eat fruits such as
watermelons, berries, and other vegetative
matter when they are available.
In some areas coyotes feed on human
refuse at dump sites and take pets
(cats and small dogs).
Coyotes are opportunistic and generally
take prey that is the easiest to
secure. Among larger wild animals,
coyotes tend to kill young, inexperienced
animals, as well as old, sick, or
weakened individuals. With domestic
animals, coyotes are capable of catching
and killing healthy, young, and in
some instances, adult prey. Prey selection
is based on opportunity and a
myriad of behavioral cues. Strong,
healthy lambs are often taken from a
flock by a coyote even though smaller,
C-53
hearing and a keen sense of smell.
Documented recoveries from severe
injuries are indicative of coyotes’
physical endurance. Although not asfleet as greyhound dogs, coyotes have
been measured at speeds of up to 40
miles per hour (64 km/hr) and can
sustain slower speeds for several miles (km).
Distemper, hepatitis, parvo virus, and
mange (caused by parasitic mites) are
among the most common coyote diseases.
Rabies and tularemia also occur
and may be transmitted to other animals
and humans. Coyotes harbor
numerous parasites including mites,
ticks, fleas, worms, and flukes. Mortality
is highest during the first year of
life, and few survive for more than 10
to 12 years in the wild. Human activity
is often the greatest single cause of
coyote mortality.
Coyotes usually breed in February and
March, producing litters about 9
weeks (60 to 63 days) later in April and May. Females sometimes breed during
the winter following their birth, particularly
if food is plentiful. Average
litter size is 5 to 7 pups, although up to
13 in a litter has been reported. More
than one litter may be found in a single
den; at times these may be from
females mated to a single male. As
noted earlier, coyotes are capable of
hybridizing with dogs and wolves, but
reproductive dysynchrony and
behaviors generally make it unlikely.
Hybrids are fertile, although their
breeding seasons do not usually correspond
to those of coyotes. Coyote dens are found in steep banks,
rock crevices, sinkholes, and underbrush,
as well as in open areas. Usually
their dens are in areas selected for
protective concealment. Den sites are
typically located less than a mile (km)
from water, but may occasionally be
much farther away. Coyotes will often
dig out and enlarge holes dug by
smaller burrowing animals. Dens vary
from a few feet (1 m) to 50 feet (15 m)
and may have several openings.
Both adult male and female coyotes
hunt and bring food to their young for
several weeks. Other adults associated
with the denning pair may also help in
feeding and caring for the young.
Coyotes
commonly hunt as singles or
pairs; extensive travel is common in
their hunting forays. They will hunt in
the same area regularly, however, if
food is plentiful. They occasionally
bury food remains for later use.
Pups begin emerging from their den
by 3 weeks of age, and within 2
months they follow adults to large
prey or carrion. Pups normally are
weaned by 6 weeks of age and frequently
are moved to larger quarters
such as dense brush patches and/or
sinkholes along water courses. The
adults and pups usually remain
together until late summer or fall
when pups become independent.
Occasionally pups are found in groups
until the breeding season begins.
Coyotes are successful at surviving
and even flourishing in the presence of
people because of their adaptable
behavior and social system. They typically
display increased reproduction
and immigration in response to
human-induced population reduction.
Damage and Damage Identification
Coyotes can cause damage to a variety
of resources, including livestock, poultry,
and crops such as watermelons.
They sometimes prey on pets and are a
threat to public health and safety when
they frequent airport runways and
residential areas, and act as carriers of
rabies. Usually, the primary concern
regarding coyotes is predation on livestock,
mainly sheep and lambs. Predation
will be the focus of the following
discussion.
Since coyotes frequently scavenge on
livestock carcasses, the mere presence
of coyote tracks or droppings near a
carcass is not sufficient evidence that
predation has taken place. Other evidence
around the site and on the carcass
must be carefully examined to aid
in determining the cause of death.
Signs of a struggle may be evident.
These may include scrapes or drag
marks on the ground, broken vegetation,
or blood in various places around
the site. The quantity of sheep or calf
remains left after a kill vary widely
depending on how recently the kill
was made, the size of the animal
killed, the weather, and the number
and species of predators that fed on
the animal.
One key in determining whether a
sheep or calf was killed by a predator
is the presence or absence of subcutaneous
(just under the skin) hemorrhage
at the point of attack. Bites to a
dead animal will not produce hemorrhage,
but bites to a live animal will. If enough of the sheep carcass remains,
carefully skin out the neck and head to
observe tooth punctures and hemorrhage
around the punctures. Talon
punctures from large birds of prey will
also cause hemorrhage, but the location
of these is usually at the top of the
head, neck, or back. This procedure
becomes less indicative of predation as
the age of the carcass increases or if the
remains are scanty or scattered.
Coyotes, foxes, mountain lions, and
bobcats usually feed on a carcass at the
flanks or behind the ribs and first consume
the liver, heart, lungs, and other
viscera. Mountain lions often cover a
carcass with debris after feeding on it.
Bears generally prefer meat to viscera
and often eat first the udder from lactating
ewes. Eagles skin out carcasses
on larger animals and leave much of
the skeleton intact. With smaller animals
such as lambs, eagles may bite off
and swallow the ribs. Feathers and“whitewash” (droppings) are usually
present where an eagle has fed.
Coyotes may kill more than one animal
in a single episode, but often will
only feed on one of the animals.
Coyotes typically attack sheep at the
throat, but young or inexperienced
coyotes may attack any part of the
body. Coyotes usually kill calves by
eating into the anus or abdominal area.
Dogs generally do not kill sheep or
calves for food and are relatively
indiscriminate in how and where they
attack. Sometimes, however, it is
difficult to differentiate between dog
and coyote kills without also looking at other sign, such as size of tracks
(Fig. 2) and spacing and size of canine
tooth punctures. Coyote tracks tend to
be more oval-shaped and compact
than those of common dogs. Nail
marks are less prominent and the
tracks tend to follow a straight line
more closely than those of dogs. The
average coyote’s stride at a trot is 16 to
18 inches (41 to 46 cm), which is typically
longer than that of a dog of similar
size and weight. Generally, dogs
attack and rip the flanks, hind quarters,
and head, and may chew ears.
The sheep are sometimes still alive but
may be severely wounded.
Accurately determining whether or
not predation occurred and, if so, by
what species, requires a considerable
amount of knowledge and experience.
Evidence must be gathered, pieced
together, and then evaluated in light of
the predators that are in the area, the
time of day, the season of the year, and
numerous other factors. Sometimes
even experts are unable to confirm the
cause of death, and it may be necessary
to rely on circumstantial information.
For more information on this
subject, refer to the section Procedures
for Evaluating Predation on Livestock
and Wildlife, in this book.
Legal Status
The status of coyotes varies depending
on state and local laws. In some states,
including most western states, coyotes
are classified as predators and can be
taken throughout the year whether or
not they are causing damage to livestock.
In other states, coyotes may be
taken only during specific seasons and
often only by specific methods, such as
trapping. Night shooting with a spotlight
is usually illegal. Some state laws
allow only state or federal agents to
use certain methods (such as snares) to
take coyotes. Some states have a provision
for allowing the taking of protected
coyotes (usually by special
permit) when it has been documented
that they are preying on livestock. In
some instances producers can apply
control methods, and in others, control
must be managed by a federal or state
agent. Some eastern states consider the
coyote a game animal, a furbearer, or a
protected species.
Damage Prevention and
Control Methods
For managing coyote damage, a variety
of control methods must be available
since no single method is effective
in every situation. Success usually
involves an integrated approach, combining
good husbandry practices with
effective control methods for short
periods of time. Regardless of the
means used to stop damage, the focus
should be on damage prevention and
control rather than elimination of coyotes.
It is neither wise nor practical to
kill all coyotes. It is important to try to
prevent coyotes from killing calves or
sheep for the first time. Once a coyote
has killed livestock, it will probably
continue to do so if given the
Wolf
Red fox
4"
Large dog
Fig. 2. Footprints of canid predators
Federal statutes that pertain to wildlife
damage control include the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Act (FIFRA), which deals with
using toxicants, and the Airborne
Hunting Act, which regulates aerial
hunting.
Laws regulating coyote control are not
necessarily uniform among states or
even among counties within a state,
and they may change frequently. A
1989 Supreme Court action established
that it was not legal to circumvent the
laws relative to killing predators, even
to protect personal property (livestock)
from predation. Equally important is
taking action as quickly as possible to
stop coyotes from killing after they
start.
Exclusion
Most coyotes readily cross over,
under, or through conventional livestock
fences. A coyote’s response to a
fence is influenced by various factors,
including the coyote’s experience and
motivation for crossing the fence. Total
exclusion of all coyotes by fencing,
especially from large areas, is highly
unlikely since some eventually learn to
either dig deeper or climb higher to
defeat a fence. Good fences, however,
can be important in reducing predation,
as well as increasing the effectiveness
of other damage control methods
(such as snares, traps, or guarding
animals).
Recent developments in fencing equipment
and design have made this
technique an effective and economically
practical method for protecting
sheep from predation under some
grazing conditions. Exclusion fencing
may be impractical in western range
sheep ranching operations.
Net-Wire Fencing
Net fences in
good repair will deter many coyotes
from entering a pasture. Horizontal
spacing of the mesh should be less
than 6 inches (15 cm), and vertical
spacing less than 4 inches (10 cm). Digging
under a fence can be discouraged
by placing a barbed wire at ground
level or using a buried wire apron
(often an expensive option). The fence
should be about 5 1/2 feet (1.6 m) high
to discourage coyotes from jumping
over it. Climbing can usually be prevented
by adding a charged wire at
the top of the fence or installing a wire
overhang.
Barrier fences with wire overhangs
and buried wire aprons were tested in
Oregon and found effective in keeping
coyotes out of sheep pastures (Fig. 3).
The construction and materials for
such fencing are usually expensive.
Therefore, fences of this type are rarely
used except around corrals, feedlots,
or areas of temporary sheep confinement.
Electric Fencing
Electric fencing,
used for years to manage livestock, has
recently been revolutionized by the
introduction of new energizers and
new fence designs from Australia and
New Zealand. The chargers, now also
manufactured in the United States,
have high output with low impedance,
are resistant to grounding, present a
minimal fire hazard, and are generally
safe for livestock and humans. The
fences are usually constructed of
smooth, high-tensile wire stretched to
a tension of 200 to 300 pounds (90 to
135 kg). The original design of electric
fences for controlling predation consisted
of multiple, alternately charged
and grounded wires, with a charged
trip wire installed just above ground
level about 8 inches (20 cm) outside the
main fence to discourage digging.
Many recent designs have every wire
charged.
The number of spacings between wires
varies considerably. A fence of 13
strands gave complete protection to
sheep from coyote predation in tests at
the USDA’s US Sheep Experiment Station
(Fig. 4). Other designs of fewer
wires were effective in some studies,
ineffective in others.
The amount of labor and installation
techniques required vary with each
type of fencing. High-tensile wire
fences require adequate bracing at corners
and over long spans. Electric fencing
is easiest to install on flat, even
terrain. Labor to install a high-tensile
electric fence may be 40% to 50% less
than for a conventional livestock fence.
Labor to keep electric fencing functional
can be significant. Tension of the
wires must be maintained, excessive
vegetation under the fence must be
removed to prevent grounding.
Coyotes and other predators occasionally
become “trapped” inside electric
fences. These animals receive a shock
as they enter the pasture and subsequently
avoid approaching the fence to
escape. In some instances the captured
predator may be easy to spot and
remove from the pasture, but in
others, particularly in large pastures
with rough terrain, the animal may be
difficult to remove.
Electric Modification of Existing
Fences
The cost to completely
replace old fences with new ones,
whether conventional or electric, can
be substantial. In instances where
existing fencing is in reasonably good
condition, the addition of one to several
charged wires can significantly
enhance the predator-deterring ability
of the fence and its effectiveness for
controlling livestock . A
charged trip wire placed 6 to 8 inches
(15 to 230 cm) above the ground about
8 to 10 inches (20 to 25 cm) outside the
fence is often effective in preventing
coyotes from digging and crawling under.
This single addition to an existing
fence is often the most effective and
economical way to fortify a fence
against coyote passage.
If coyotes are climbing or jumping a
fence, charged wires can be added to
the top and at various intervals. These
wires should be offset outside the
fence. Fencing companies offer offset
brackets to make installation relatively
simple. The number of additional
wires depends on the design of the
original fence and the predicted habits
of the predators.
Portable Electric Fencing
The
advent of safe, high-energy chargers
has led to the development of a variety
of portable electric fences. Most are
constructed with thin strands of wire
running through polyethylene twine or
ribbon, commonly called polywire or
polytape. The polywire is available in
single and multiple wire rolls or as
mesh fencing of various heights. It can
be quickly and easily installed to serve
Fig. 5. Existing woven-wire livestock fence modified with electrified wire.
Outrigger post with four wires
Fig. 4. High-tensile, electric, antipredator fence.
Perhaps the biggest advantage of portable
electric fencing is the ability to set
up temporary pens to hold livestock at
night or during other predator control
activities. Portable fencing increases
livestock management options to
avoid places or periods of high predation
risk. Range sheep that are not
accustomed to being fenced, however,
may be difficult to contain in a portable
fence.
Fencing and Predation Management
The success of various types of
fencing in keeping out predators has
ranged from poor to excellent. Density
and behavior of coyotes, terrain and
vegetative conditions, availability of
prey, size of pastures, season of the
year, design of the fence, quality of
construction, maintenance, and other
factors all interplay in determining
how effective a fence will be. Fencing
is most likely to be cost-effective where
the potential for predation is high,
where there is potential for a high
stocking rate, or where electric modification
of existing fences can be used.
Fencing can be effective when incorporated
with other means of predation
control. For example, combined use of
guarding dogs and fencing has
achieved a greater degree of success
than either method used alone. An
electric fence may help keep a guarding
dog in and coyotes out of a pasture.
If an occasional coyote does pass
through a fence, the guarding dog can
keep it away from the livestock and
alert the producer by barking.
Fencing can also be used to concentrate
predator activity at specific places
such as gateways, ravines, or other
areas where the animals try to gain
access. Traps and snares can often be
set at strategic places along a fence to
effectively capture predators. Smaller
pastures are easier to keep free from
predators than larger ones encompassing
several square miles (km2).
Fencing is one of the most beneficia
investments in predator damage control and livestock management where
practical factors warrant its use.
As a final note, fences can pose problems
for wildlife. Barrier fences in particular
exclude not only predators, but
also many other wildlife species. This
fact should be considered where fencing
intersects migration corridors for
wildlife. Ungulates such as deer may
attempt to jump fences, and they occasionally
become entangled in the top
wires.
Cultural Methods and Habitat
Modification
At the present time, there are no documented
differences in the vulnerability
of various breeds of sheep to coyote or
dog predation because there has been
very little research in this area. Generally,
breeds with stronger flocking
behaviors are less vulnerable to predators.
A possible cause of increased coyote
predation to beef cattle calves is the
increased use of cattle dogs in herding.
Cows herded by dogs may not be as
willing to defend newborn calves from
coyotes as those not accustomed to
herding dogs.
Flock or Herd Health
Healthy
sheep flocks and cow/calf herds have
higher reproductive rates and lower
overall death losses. Coyotes often
prey on smaller lambs. Poor nutrition
means weaker or smaller young, with
a resultant increased potential for predation.
Ewes or cows in good condition
through proper nutrition will raise
stronger young that may be less vulnerable
to coyote predation.
Record Keeping
Good recordkeeping
and animal identification systems
are invaluable in a livestock
operation for several reasons. From the
standpoint of coyote predation,
records help producers identify loss
patterns or trends to provide baseline
data that will help determine what
type and amount of coyote damage
control is economically feasible.
Records also aid in identifying critical
problem areas that may require attention.
They may show, for example, that
losses to coyotes are high in a particular
pasture in early summer, thus highlighting
the need for preventive
control in that area.
Counting sheep and calves regularly is
important in large pastures or areas
with heavy cover where dead livestock
could remain unnoticed. It is not
unusual for producers who do not
regularly count their sheep to suffer
fairly substantial losses before they
realize there is a problem. Determining
with certainty whether losses were due
to coyotes or to other causes may
become impossible.
Season and Location of Lambing
or Calving
Both season and location
of lambing and calving can significantly
affect the severity of coyote predation
on sheep or calves. The highest predation losses of sheep and calves
typically occur from late spring
through September due to the food
requirements of coyote pups. In the
Midwest and East, some lambing or
calving occurs between October and
December, whereas in most of the
western states lambing or calving
occurs between February and May. By
changing to a fall lambing or calving
program, some livestock producers
have not only been able to diversify
their marketing program, but have
also avoided having a large number of
young animals on hand during periods
when coyote predation losses are typically
highest.
Shortening lambing and calving periods
by using synchronized or group
breeding may reduce predation by
producing a uniform lamb or calf crop,
thus reducing exposure of small livestock
to predation. Extra labor and
facilities may be necessary, however,
when birthing within a concentrated
period. Some producers practice early
weaning and do not allow young to go
to large pastures, thus reducing the
chance of coyote losses. This also gives
orphaned and weak young a greater
chance to survive.
The average beef cattle calf production
is about 78% Nationwide. First-calf
heifers need human assistance to give
birth to a healthy calf about 40% of the
time. Cow/calf producers who average
90% to 95% calf crops generally
check their first-calf heifers every 2
hours during calving. Also, most good
producers place first-calf heifers in
small pastures (less than 160 acres [64
ha]). When all cows are bred to produce
calves in a short, discreet (e.g.
60-day) period, production typically
increases and predation losses
decrease. The birth weight of calves
born to first-calf heifers can be decreased
by using calving-ease bulls,
thus reducing birthing complications
that often lead to coyote predation.
Producers who use lambing sheds or
pens for raising sheep and small pastures
or paddocks for raising cattle
have lower predation losses than those
who lamb or calve in large pastures or
on open range. The more human presence
around sheep, the lower the predation
losses. Confining sheep entirely
to buildings virtually eliminates predation
losses.
Corrals
Although predation can
occur at any time, coyotes tend to kill
sheep at night. Confining sheep at
night is one of the most effective
means of reducing losses to predation.
Nevertheless, some coyotes and many
dogs are bold enough to enter corrals
and kill sheep. A “coyote-proof” corral
is a wise investment. Coyotes are more
likely to attack sheep in unlighted corrals
than in corrals with lights. Even if
the corral fence is not coyote-proof, the
mere fact that the sheep are confined
reduces the risk of predation. Penning
sheep at night and turning them out at
mid-morning might reduce losses. In
addition, coyotes tend to be more
active and kill more sheep on foggy or
rainy days than on sunny days. Keeping
the sheep penned on foggy or rainy
days may be helpful.
Aside from the benefits of livestock
confinement, there are some problems
associated it. Costs of labor and materials
associated with building corrals,
herding livestock, and feeding livestock
must be considered. In addition,
the likelihood of increased parasite
and disease problems may inhibit
adoption of confinement as a method
of reducing damage.
Carrion Removal
Removal and
proper disposal of dead sheep and
cattle are important since livestock carcasse
tend to attract coyotes,
habituating them to feed on livestock.
Some producers reason that coyotes
are less likely to kill livestock if there is
carrion available. This may be a valid
preventative measure if an adequate
supply of carrion can be maintained
far away from livestock. If a coyote
becomes habituated to a diet of livestock
remains, however, it may turn to killing livestock in the absence of carcasses.
Wherever there is easily accessible
carrion, coyotes seem to gather
and predation losses are higher. Conversely,
where carrion is generally not
available, losses are lower. A study in
Canada showed that the removal of
livestock carcasses significantly
reduced overwinter coyote populations
and shifted coyote distributions
out of livestock areas.
Habitat Changes
Habitat features
change in some areas, depending on
seasonal crop growth. Some cultivated
fields are devoid of coyotes during
winter but provide cover during the
growing season, and a corresponding
increase in predation on nearby livestock
may occur.
The creation of nearly 40 million acres
(16 million ha) of Conservation
Reserve Program (CRP) acres may
benefit many species of wildlife,
including predators. These acres harbor
prey for coyotes and foxes, and an
increase in predator populations can
reasonably be predicted. Clearing
away weeds and brush from CRP
areas may reduce predation problems
since predators usually use cover in
their approach to livestock. Generally,
the more open the area where livestock
are kept, the less likely that
coyote losses will occur. Often junk
piles are located near farmsteads.
These serve as good habitat for rabbits
and other prey and may bring coyotes
into close proximity with livestock,
increasing the likelihood for opportunistic
coyotes to prey on available livestock.
Removing junk piles may be a
good management practice.
Pasture Selection
If sheep or beef
cattle are not lambed or calved in
sheds or lots, the choice of birthing
pastures should be made with potential
coyote predation problems in
mind. Lambs and calves in remote or rugged pastures are usually more vulnerable
to coyote predation than those
in closer, more open, and smaller pastures.
In general, a relatively small,
open, tightly fenced pasture that can
be kept under close surveillance is a
good choice for birthing livestock that
are likely targets of coyotes. Past experience
with predators as well as
weather and disease considerations
should also serve as guides in the
selection of birthing pastures.
A factor not completely understood is
that, at times, coyotes and other predators
will kill in one pasture and not in
another. Therefore, changing pastures
during times of loss may reduce predation.
There may seem to be a relationship
between size of pasture and
predator losses, with higher loss rates
reported in larger pastures. In reality,
loss rates may not be related as much
to pasture size as to other local conditions
such as slope, terrain, and human
populations. Hilly or rugged areas are
typically sparsely populated by humans
and are characterized by large
pastures. These conditions are ideal for
coyotes.
Sheep pastures that contain or are
adjacent to streams, creeks, and rivers
tend to have more coyote problems
than pastures without such features.
Water courses serve as hunting and
travel lanes for coyotes.
Herders
Using herders with sheep or
cattle in large pastures can help reduce
predation, but there has been a trend
away from herders in recent years
because of increasing costs and a
shortage of competent help. Nevertheless,
tended flocks or herds receive
closer attention than untended livestock,
particularly in large pastures,
and problems can be solved before
they become serious. We recommend
two herders per band of range sheep.
If herders aren’t used, daily or periodic
checking of the livestock is a good husbandry
practice.
Frightening Devices and
Repellents
Frightening devices are useful for
reducing losses during short periods
or until predators are removed. The
devices should not be used for long
periods of time when predation is not
a problem. To avoid acclimation you
can increase both the degree and duration
of effectiveness by varying the
position, appearance, duration, or frequency
of the frightening stimuli, or
using them in various combinations.
Many frightening methods have been
ridiculed in one way or another; nevertheless,
all of the techniques discussed
here have helped producers by saving
livestock and/or buying some time to
institute other controls.
Lights. A study involving 100 Kansas
sheep producers showed that using
lights above corrals at night had the
most marked effect on losses to coyotes
of all the devices examined. Out
of 79 sheep killed by coyotes in corrals,
only three were killed in corrals with
lights. Nearly 40% of the producers in
the study used lights over corrals.
There was some indication in the
study that sheep losses to dogs were
higher in lighted corrals, but the
sample size for dog losses was small
and the results inconclusive. Most of
the producers (80%) used mercury
vapor lights that automatically turned
on at dusk and off at dawn.
Another advantage of lighted corrals is
that coyotes are more vulnerable when
they enter the lighted area. Coyotes
often establish a fairly predictable pattern
of killing. When this happens in a
lighted corral, it is possible for a producer
to wait above or downwind of
the corral and to shoot the coyote as it
enters. Red or blue lights may make
the ambush more successful since coyotes
appear to be less frightened by
them than by white lights.
Revolving or flashing the lights may
enhance their effectiveness in frightening
away predators. There is some
speculation that the old oil lamps used
in highway construction repelled
coyotes, presumably because of their
flickering effect.
Bells and Radios
Some sheep producers
place bells on some or all of
their sheep to discourage predators.
Where effects have been measured,
however, no difference in losses was
detected.
Some producers use a radio tuned to
an all-night station to temporarily
deter coyotes, dogs, and other predators.
Vehicles
Parking cars or pickups in
the area where losses are occurring often
reduces predation temporarily.
Effectiveness can be improved or
extended by frequently moving the
vehicle to a new location. Some producers
place a replica of a person in
the vehicle when losses are occurring
in the daylight. If predators continue
to kill with vehicles in place, the
vehicle serves as a comfortable blind in which to wait and shoot offending
predators.
Propane Exploders
Propane
exploders produce loud explosions at
timed intervals when a spark ignites a
measured amount of propane gas. On
most models, the time between explosions
can vary from about 1 minute to
15 minutes. Their effectiveness at
frightening coyotes is usually only
temporary, but it can be increased by
moving exploders to different locations
and by varying the intervals between
explosions. In general, the timer
on the exploder should be set to fire
every 8 to 10 minutes, and the location
should be changed every 3 or 4 days.
In cattle pastures, these devices should
be placed on rigid stands above the
livestock. Normally, the exploder
should be turned on just before dark
and off at daybreak, unless coyotes are
killing livestock during daylight hours.
Motion sensors are now available and
likely improve their effectiveness,
though it is still only temporary.
Exploders are best used to reduce
losses until more permanent control or
preventive measures can be implemented.
In about 24 coyote depredation
complaints over a 2-year period in
North Dakota, propane exploders
were judged to be successful in stopping
or reducing predation losses until
offending coyotes could be removed. “Success time” of the exploders appears
to depend a great deal on how
well they are tended by the livestock
producer.
Guarding Animals
Livestock Guarding Dogs
A livestock
guarding dog is one that generally
stays with sheep or cattle without
harming them and aggressively repels
predators. Its protective behaviors are
largely instinctive, but proper rearing
plays a part. Breeds most commonly
used today include the Great Pyrenees,
Komondor, Anatolian Shepherd, and
Akbash Dog (Fig. 7). Other Old World
breeds used to a lesser degree include
Maremma, Sharplaninetz, and Kuvasz.
Crossbreeds are also used.
The characteristics of each sheep
operation will dictate the number of
dogs required for effective protection
from predators. If predators are scarce,
one dog is sufficient for most fenced
pasture operations. Range operations
often use two dogs per band of sheep.
The performance of individual dogs
will differ based on age and experience.
The size, topography, and habitat
of the pasture or range must also be
considered. Relatively flat, open areas
can be adequately covered by one dog.
When brush, timber, ravines, and hills
are in the pasture, several dogs may be
required, particularly if the sheep are
scattered. Sheep that flock and form a
cohesive unit, especially at night, can
be protected by one dog more effectively
than sheep that are continually
scattered and bedded in a number of
locations.
The goal with a new puppy is to channel its natural instincts to produce a
mature guardian dog with the desired
characteristics. This is best accomplished
by early and continued association
with sheep to produce a bond
between the dog and sheep. The optimum
time to acquire a pup is between
7 and 8 weeks of age. The pup should
be separated from litter mates and
placed with sheep, preferably lambs,
in a pen or corral from which it can’t
escape. This socialization period
should continue with daily checks
from the producer until the pup is
about 16 weeks old. Daily checks don’t
necessarily include petting the pup.
The primary bond should be between
the dog and the sheep, not between the
dog and humans. The owner, however,
should be able to catch and handle
the dog to administer health care
or to manage the livestock. At about 4
months, the pup can be released into a
larger pasture to mingle with the other
sheep.
A guarding dog will likely include
peripheral areas in its patrolling. Some
have been known to chase vehicles
and wildlife and threaten children and
cyclists. These activities should be discouraged.
Neighbors should be alerted
to the possibility that the dog may
roam onto their property and that
some predator control devices such as
traps, snares, and M-44s present a
danger to it. Many counties enforce
stringent laws regarding owner
responsibility for damage done by
roaming dogs. It is in the best interests
of the owner, dog, and community to
train the dog to stay in its designated
area.
The use of guarding dogs does not
eliminate the need for other predation
control actions. They should, however,
be compatible with the dog’s behavior.
Toxicants (including some insecticides
and rodenticides) used to control various
pest species can be extremely hazardous
to dogs and are therefore not
compatible with the use of guarding
dogs.
The M-44 is particularly hazardous to
dogs. Some people have successfully
trained their dogs to avoid M-44s by
allowing the dog to set off an M-44
filled with pepper or by rigging the
device to a rat trap. The unpleasant
experience may teach the dog to avoid
M-44s, but the method is not foolproof—one error by the dog, and the
result is usually fatal. With the exception
of toxic collars, which are not legal
in all states, toxicants should not be
used in areas where guarding dogs are
working unless the dog is chained or
confined while the control takes place.
Dogs caught in a steel trap set for
predators are rarely injured seriously if
they are found and released within a
reasonable period of time. If snares
and traps are used where dogs are
working, the producer should: (1)
encourage the use of sets and devices
that are likely not to injure the dog if it
is caught, and (2) know where traps
and snares are set so they can be
checked if a dog is missing. Aerial
hunting, as well as calling and shooting
coyotes, should pose no threat to
guarding dogs. Ensuring the safety of
the dog is largely the producer’s
responsibility.
Dogs may be viewed as a first line of
defense against predation in sheep and
cow/calf operations in some cases.
Their effectiveness can be enhanced by
good livestock management and by
eliminating predators with suitable
removal techniques.
Donkeys. Although the research has
not focused on donkeys as it has on
guarding dogs, they are gaining in
popularity as protectors of sheep and
goat flocks in the United States. A
recent survey showed that in Texas
alone, over 2,400 of the 11,000 sheep
and goat producers had used donkeys
as guardians.
The terms donkey and burro are synonymous
(the Spanish translation of
donkey is burro) and are used interchangeably.
Donkeys are generally
docile to people, but they seem to
have an inherent dislike of dogs and
other canids, including coyotes and
foxes. The typical response of a donkey
to an intruding canid may include
braying, bared teeth, a running attack,
kicking, and biting. Most likely it is
acting out of aggression toward the
intruder rather than to protect the
sheep. There is little information on a
donkey’s effectiveness with noncanid
predators such as bears, mountain
lions, bobcats, or birds of prey.
Reported success of donkeys in reducing
predation is highly variable.
Improper husbandry or rearing practices
and unrealistic expectations
Fig. 7. Livestock guarding dog (Akbash dog)
*The above information was taken from a University of Nebraska Web site with
express permission of Stephen Vatassel, wildlife damage project coordinator.
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